Hurricanes are the largest, most severe and destructive storm systems on earth. Hurricanes form over warm ocean water in the tropical region and are characterized by large rotating low-pressure systems that produce heavy rain and sustained wind speeds of 74 miles per hour or greater.
Other names for this weather phenomenon are “cyclones” and “typhoons”. Use of the different names is based on the global location of the storms. Hurricanes occur in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean, cyclones occur in the south Pacific or Indian Ocean, and typhoons occur in the northwestern Pacific Ocean. Regardless of the name used, these storms often cause significant loss of life and property when they hit land. To simplify our discussions, and where possible, the single term “hurricane” will be used to describe this weather phenomenon.
Throughout history, many countries located on or near the sea have been devastated by the effects of hurricanes. Hurricanes often create a phenomenon called a storm surge. A storm surge is a rise in the ocean water near the shore and is caused by the approach of the hurricane's low-pressure weather system where the associated high winds push the ocean water onto the shore. Storm surges can produce extensive flooding up to 25 miles inland and are by far the most costly and deadly characteristic of hurricanes. For example, in 2005, in the United States, Hurricane Katrina produced a storm surge of 28 feet that caused $108 billion in damages and the deaths of 1,200 people. In 2008, in the United States, Hurricane Ike produced a storm surge of 20 feet that caused $29.5 billion in damages and 82 deaths. Given this recent history and the high probability for future similar losses given the warming of the planet, several countries around the world have a vested interest in deploying a practical defense system against storm surges.
Two of the most common defenses against storm surges are “storm surge barriers” and “artificial levees.”
Storm surge barriers are tall elongated walls constructed with concrete and steel. An example of this type of barrier is the Lake Borgne Surge Barrier located in New Orleans, La. The Lake Borgne Surge Barrier is permanently fixed to the ground, stands 26 feet high and extends a distance of 1.8 miles. The barrier was completed in 2013 at a cost of $1.1 billion, or $611 million a mile. At this rate, it would cost approximately $10.5 trillion to protect the 17,141 miles of the U.S. tidal coastline along the Gulf of Mexico. This price does not include the cost to protect the U.S. Atlantic coast. Though they may be effective against storm surges, the construction of these barriers to protect American shores may be cost-prohibitive.
Artificial levees, also known as dykes or dikes, are elongated constructed walls that are built by piling earth on a cleared, level, ground surface. Levees are typically wide at the base and taper to a top level where the resulting structure can stand several feet high as measured from the levee's base. In addition to storm surge protection, artificial levees are commonly used to prevent river flooding. Even though levees are used extensively throughout the world, levees often have a serious weakness. Since levees are made from piles of earth (e.g., dirt and rocks), if any portion of the levee's earthen structure becomes saturated, eroded, or is overtopped with water, such a levee will often fail or “breach.” A breach represents a special hazard because the sudden release of water can quickly inundate a community, destroying property and life along the way.
Using these flood barrier technologies may present some of the following challenges, for example: (1) the construction cost per mile may be very high; (2) these structures may be permanent; (3) these structures may be aesthetically unappealing; (4) these structures often block aesthetically appealing views, such as coastlines; (5) public resistance is often high when these structures are proposed for pristine locations; (6) the maintenance cost per mile may be very high; and (7) these structures may be subject to failure over time due to exposure to water or weather.
Turning to the field of railcars, there are a number of different railcar types, including gondola railcars and flatcar railcars.
FIG. 1 shows a side view of a conventional gondola railcar 11 with railcar couplers 12 attached at each end of the gondola railcar 11. A sidewall 13 has a height H1 and extends the length L1 of the gondola railcar 11 terminating at endwalls 14. Two supporting trucks 15 are respectively disposed under the ends of the gondola railcar 11. The trucks 15 are shown positioned on a railroad track 4. The sidewalls 13 and endwalls 14 are made of generally planar sheets of thick rigid steel that is reinforced against bending by steel rib wall reinforcements 19. These components are assembled as shown and securely attached by welds, rivets, bolts and/or other attachment means.
FIG. 2 shows a side view of the gondola railcar 16 that is similar to the gondola railcar 11 shown in FIG. 1, except that the gondola railcar 16 has a sidewall 13 and endwall 14 construction that has a greater height H2 than the height H1 of the railcar 11 of FIG. 1.
FIG. 3 shows an end view of the gondola railcar 16 with a railcar coupler 12 attached at the end of the gondola railcar 16 and an endwall 14 that has a width L2 that terminates at the sidewalls 13. The bottom of the endwall 14 may be attached and secured by a weld to the top of a gondola floor 17. FIG. 3 also illustrates a gondola underframe 18 assembly and a truck 15 supporting the gondola underframe 18. The truck 15 may be positioned on a railroad track 4.
FIG. 4 shows a bottom perspective view of the gondola railcar 16. The bottom of the sidewall 13 and endwall 14 may be attached to the top of the gondola floor 17, and the gondola underframe 18 assembly may be attached to the bottom of the gondola floor 17. The trucks 15 may be attached to the bottom of the gondola underframe 18.
FIG. 5 shows a top perspective view of the gondola railcar 16. The sidewall 13 is cut away to show an interior view of the gondola railcar 16, with the gondola floor 17 located at the bottom of the sidewalls 13 and endwalls 14. The trucks 15 may support the bottom of the gondola railcar 16 and a railcar coupler 12 may be located at the end of the gondola railcar 16. Some conventional gondola railcars have at least one drainage hole 173 positioned on the gondola floor 17 to empty precipitation (e.g., water) or other fluids out of the gondola railcar 16 interior and onto the ground below. When the drainage hole(s) 173 is plugged or absent, the interior of the gondola railcar 16 above the gondola floor 17 may fill with precipitation (water) or other fluids.
FIG. 6 shows a side cut-away view of the gondola railcar 16, which shows the bottom of the endwalls 14 attached and secured by a weld to the top of the gondola floor 17 and gondola underframe 18 assembly.
FIG. 7 shows an end cut-away view of the gondola railcar 16, which shows the bottom of the sidewalls 13 attached and secured by a weld to the top of the gondola floor 17 and gondola underframe 18 assembly.
FIG. 8 shows a side view of a conventional flatcar railcar 24 with railcar couplers 20 attached at each end of the flatcar railcar 24 and a planar floor surface 22 that is attached on top of and extends the length L3 of the flatcar underframe 23. The flatcar underframe 23 and floor surface 22 may be supported by flatcar trucks 21 respectively attached to each end of the flatcar railcar 24. The flatcar trucks 21 are shown positioned on a railroad track 4.
FIG. 9 shows an end view of the flatcar railcar 24 with a railcar coupler 20 attached at the end of the flatcar railcar 24. The planar floor surface 22 extends the width L4 of the flatcar underframe 23 and is attached and secured by a weld on top of the flatcar underframe 23. A flatcar truck 21 is attached to the bottom of the flatcar underframe 23 and the flatcar truck 21 is positioned on a railroad track 4.
FIG. 10 shows a bottom perspective view of the flatcar railcar 24 with the flatcar trucks 21 attached to the bottom of the flatcar underframe 23. The railcar couplers 20 are attached at each end of the flatcar railcar 24. A hand brake mechanism 25 is attached to an end of the flatcar railcar 24.
FIG. 11 shows a top perspective view of the flatcar railcar 24 with a railcar coupler 20 attached at the end of the flatcar railcar 24 and the planar floor surface 22 attached and secured by a weld on top. The floor surface 22 extends the length and width of the flatcar underframe 23. The flatcar underframe 23 is supported by the flatcar trucks 21 attached at each end of the flatcar railcar 24.